Scientific output
Publications
List of publications by the laboratory. Publications specifically derived from the Swim3 project are identified as such; the rest correspond to the ongoing scientific activity of Aquatics Lab members.
Swim3 project publications
Scientific output specifically derived from project PID2022-142147NB-I00. Cited in APA 7 format. The abstract of each article is reproduced after the DOI reference.
This study examined the acute effects of combining short-duration static stretching with resistance-based activation, designed to induce post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE), on upper-limb muscle mechanics and neuromuscular performance. Fourteen competitive swimmers (7 male, 7 female) completed three randomized warm-up protocols: (1) general aerobic activity (CON), (2) Aerobic activity + 2 × 30 s of static stretching for latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major (SS), and (3) Aerobic activity + static stretching + 3 × 5 reps of resistance-band pull-overs (SS/PAPE). Shoulder extension range of motion (ROM), pectoralis- and latissimus dorsi-passive muscle stiffness and elasticity as well as isometric/dynamic torque, rate of force development (RFD), and power (isokinetic dynamometer) were assessed pre- and 10 min post-intervention. Results showed significant Time × Protocol interactions for ROM, maximal torque, RFD, and average torque. SS/PAPE elicited the largest ROM gain and improvements in dynamic performance, with significant increases in average torque and RFD, while SS led to modest ROM increases but small and non-significant declines in average torque and RFD. Passive muscle stiffness and elasticity exhibited non-significant changes in all groups. Although relative changes were comparable across sexes, males consistently outperformed females in torque and RFD, while females presented higher ROM than males. These findings demonstrate that integrating brief static stretching with sport-specific, high-intensity upper-limb activation can acutely enhance flexibility and explosive force generation without impairing performance. The Stretching + PAPE approach offers a practical, time-efficient warm-up strategy for overhead athletes, particularly in contexts where rapid force production at extended joint positions is essential.
Plyometric training has been proposed as a relevant tool for swimming performance, especially in turns, given its biomechanical similarity to the push-off phase. This study aimed 1) to analyse the relationship between the drop jump (DJ) variables and the tumble turn variables and 2) to explore which DJ variables may predict the tumble turn time. A cross-sectional design was used to examine the relationship between the DJ and tumble turn performance. Eighteen swimmers (9 females, 14.3 ± 0.8 years; and 9 males, 15.2 ± 0.5 years) participated. Swimmers completed a standardized dryland warm-up followed by 5 sets of a single DJ. Subsequently, participants underwent a standardized in-water warm-up before performing 3 front crawl tumble turns. Sex-stratified correlations, exploratory linear stepwise multiple regression, and network analyses were performed to examine the relationships between DJ variables and tumble turn performance. Jump height correlated with the mean horizontal velocity during the wall contact active phase for females (r = 0.71; p = 0.033) and males (rho=0.9; p = 0.001). The tuck index of the DJ (TI G ) showed association with the time from wall contact to 2.5 m (T2.5m-out) for females (r = 0.76; p = 0.018) and males (r = -0.67; p = 0.047). Exploratory multiple regressions explained the T2.5m-out for females and males (87% and 88% of the variance, respectively) with TI G as the main predictor in both. In conclusion, DJ performance was associated with tumble turn performance. Variations in the tuck index during DJ, reflecting different hip and knee displacement patterns, may be linked to differences in tumble turn efficiency.
Purpose : Despite the growing global prominence of elite open-water (OW) swimming, little is known about how seasonal variation influences the physiological and kinematic determinants of maximal performance. This study aimed (1) to evaluate the seasonal changes in performance, physiological, and kinematic factors in maximal incremental swimming tests in elite OW swimmers and (2) to examine the influence of physiological and kinematic factors on the maximal swimming performance. Methods : Eighteen world-class and elite (12 males [25.4 (3.3 y)] and 6 females [26.4 (3.9) y]) OW swimmers voluntarily participated. A total of 57 (40 male and 17 female) intermittent incremental tests (7 × 400 m) in a 50-m pool were analyzed at 4 different moments (October 2022, February and October 2023 and March 2024). Heart rate; blood lactate concentration ([La − ]); aerobic (AeT) and lactate thresholds (LT); swimming speed; and stroke rate, length, and index were assessed. Results : The OW swimmers showed no changes in performance or physiological factors between tests. In males, the stroke length and index changed in both AeT and LT, whereas no kinematic changes were observed in females. The maximum swimming speed was positively associated with speed at AeT and LT in both sexes, while only males showed association between [La − ] at LT. Stroke length and index at AeT and LT in males and stroke rate at AeT and LT were positively associated with maximum swimming speed. Conclusions : Despite stable performance and physiological factors, seasonal changes in stroke technique highlight the importance of monitoring kinematics to guide training or competition of elite swimmers.
ABSTRACT This study aimed to determine elite swimmers’ pacing strategy in the 3000 m event and to analyse the associated performance variability and pacing factors. Forty-seven races were performed by 17 male and 13 female elite swimmers in a 25 m pool (20.7 ± 2.9 years; 807 ± 54 FINA points). Lap performance, clean swim velocity (CSV), water break time (WBT), water break distance (WBD), stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL) and stroke index (SI) were analysed including and excluding the first (0–50 m) and last lap (2950–3000 m). The most common pacing strategy adopted was parabolic. Lap performance and CSV were faster in the first half of the race compared to the second half (p < 0.001). WBT, WBD, SL and SI were reduced (p < 0.05) in the second half compared to the first half of the 3000 m when including and excluding the first and last laps for both sexes. SR increased in the second half of the men’s race when the first and last laps were excluded. All studied variables showed significant variation between the two halves of the 3000 m, the highest variation being obtained in WBT and WBD, suggesting that fatigue negatively affected swimming kinematics.
Purpose: The assessment of lactate threshold (LT) and its relationship to open-water (OW) performance is crucial. This study aimed (1) to analyze LT in world-class OW swimmers, (2) to compare swimming speed at LT (SSLT) and 4 mmol·L−1 of blood lactate concentration ([La−]; SS4), and (3) to examine the relationships between SSLT and swimming performance. Methods: Twenty world-class and elite (11 male, 26.4 [3.0] y; 9 female, 25.8 [3.6] y) OW swimmers voluntarily participated. A total of 46 (29 male and 17 female) intermittent incremental tests (7 × 400 m) conducted in a 50-m pool were analyzed. Seasonal best performances on 400-, 800-, and 1500-m and 10-km OW swimming events were obtained. Results: The SSLT was 1.62 (0.02) (3.8 [1.0] mmol·L−1) and 1.46 (0.04) m·s−1 (3.0 [0.7] mmol·L−1) in males and females, respectively, which corresponded to 97% of the peak speed reached in the tests. There were no differences (P = .148) between SSLT and SS4 in males; however, SSLT was lower (P = .019) than SS4 in females. The SSLT was negatively correlated with swimming performance, with the exception of 10-km OW and 400-m times in males and females, respectively. Conclusions: World-class and elite OW swimmers exhibited a greatly developed aerobic capacity with LT close to their maximum speed. The SS4 could be used as an approximation to SSLT in males but overestimates true aerobic capacity in females. LT is a useful tool for assessing performance, as OW swimmers with higher SSLT showed better swimming performance.
AbstractThis study aimed to investigate the relationship between the load–velocity profile and sprint swimming performance and kinematics, explore the inter-relationships of the load–velocity profile variables and blood lactate concentrations [La−] and dry-land strength (pull-ups), and examine sex-based differences. Twenty-seven swimmers (15 males: 19.2±3.7 y; 50 m front-crawl 550±70 World Aquatics points; 12 females: 17.7±2.4 y; 50 m front-crawl 552±63 World Aquatics points) underwent a 50 m front-crawl all-out swim test, a load–velocity profile test, and a pull-up test. Theoretical maximum velocity was associated with sprint swimming performance (r>0.863 and p<0.001), but not the theoretical maximum load (L 0) or the slope (p>0.05) for both sexes. An association between kinematics during the load–velocity profile test and free swimming was weakened as the load increased, with the correlation coefficient (r) decreasing from 0.929 to 0.403. Theoretical maximum velocity and theoretical maximum load were primarily associated with both sexes with the first (r>0.950 and p<0.001) and last (r>0.849 and p<0.001) semi-tethered trials, respectively. Only in females [La−] was associated with the theoretical maximum load and slope (r>0.573 and p<0.05). Males exhibited greater values than females in all the assessed variables (p<0.05) except for stroke rates and [La−]. The load–velocity profile is a valuable tool for assessing performance in both sexes. Kinematic parameters were related between semi-tethered and free swimming; however, association diminished with increasing load.
Abstract Background Swimming performance depends on a wide variety of factors; however, the interaction between these factors and their importance varies between events. In sprint events, the characterized pacing underlines its specific development, as swimmers must achieve the highest possible speed while sustaining it to the greatest extent possible. Objectives The aim of this review was to identify the key factors underlying sprint swimming performance and to provide in-depth and practical evidence-based information to optimize performance. Methods The review protocol was not registered. PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus databases were searched up to October 31, 2023. Studies involving competitive swimmers and investigating sprint swimming performance were included, while studies conducted with young or masters’ swimmers, triathletes or waterpolo players or not investigating sprint swimming performance were excluded. The Downs and Black Quality Assessment Checklist was performed on the included articles to assess the methodological quality. Results After applying the PICOS framework, 39 of the 1330 articles initially identified were included according to the PRISMA guidelines. The included records focused mainly on dry-land strength and in-water forces of both upper and lower limbs. A wide range of kinematic variables were also examined, together with the importance of anthropometric and various physiological parameters. Conclusion This review highlights the importance of developing muscular strength and effectively transferring it to performance in the water. The evidence suggests that muscular development should prioritize enhancing velocity and effective displacement, rather than merely increasing force and performance in loaded tests. However, further research is needed to confirm this. While in-water forces have been well studied, there is a notable lack of analysis regarding drag. The optimal balance between stroke rate and stroke length should be determined individually, with a primary focus on achieving a high stroke length from a high stroke rate. Although anthropometry may play an important role in performance, the interaction of these traits appears to be complex, suggesting that other factors may be more important in determining performance outcomes. From a physiological perspective, the results indicate that the lactate peak and rate of accumulation should be thoroughly developed. Notwithstanding, this review shows the lack of a solid body of knowledge on the importance of anaerobic and especially aerobic factors. Finally, the absence of a list of potential confounders, together with the lack of high-quality studies involving elite swimmers (level 1 and 2), complicates the interpretation of the results.
Purpose: To assess the effect of 5-week training-cessation period on performance and load–velocity profile-related variables. Methods: Twenty-four competitive swimmers (15 male and 9 female: 19.2 [3.7] and 17.3 [2.3] y, 50-m front-crawl 550 [70], and 572 [51] World Aquatics points, respectively) performed a 50-m front-crawl all-out swim, a load–velocity profile, and a pull-up test before and after a 5-week off-season period. Kinematic variables, blood lactate concentration, and rating of perceived exertion were monitored during the load–velocity profile tests. Results: Performance was impaired 1.3% for males (P < .01) and 3.8% for females (P < .01). Neither anthropometric changes (males r2 = .277, females r2 = .218, P > .05) nor the physical activity performed during the off-season (males r2 = .329, females r2 = .094, P > .05) attenuated performance impairments. While males counteracted the stroke-rate decline (P < .05) by increasing stroke length (P < .05) in the majority of the race, females did not, leading to a decline in clean swimming speed (P < .05). The maximum load at zero velocity decreased (P < .05) during the load–velocity profile test. In addition, males showed an increased blood lactate concentration (P < .05), whereas females decreased the maximum velocity at zero load (P < .01) and stroke rate (P < .01). No change in the slope was observed for either sex (P > .05). Conclusion: Following a 5-week off-season period, sprint swimming performance declines (males 0.34 s; females 1.15 s). The load–velocity profile and related variables evidenced deterioration, showing changes in blood lactate concentration, maximum load at zero velocity, average velocity during the third trial, and stroke rate.
ABSTRACTChildren and adults may react differently to warm‐up preservation due to different physical characteristics. This study aimed to: (i) assess the impact of different rewarm‐up routines in swimmers during a transition phase (20–25 min), including passive rest (SWU) or dynamic activities (RWU), on countermovement jump and swimming start performances, and (ii) explore potential RWU adaptations considering maturity offset (peak height velocity—PHV) and sex. Performance was analyzed using mixed effect ANCOVA, considering protocol, maturity offset (pre‐PHV, mid‐PHV, post‐PHV, and adv. post‐PHV), and sex. Results favored RWU over SWU with substantial magnitudes for jump height: pre‐PHV (min‐20, ES = 1.21; min‐25, ES = 1.65), mid‐PHV (min‐20, ES = 1.23; min‐25, ES = 1.14), post‐PHV (min‐20, ES = 1.37; min‐25, ES = 0.73), and adv. post‐PHV (min‐20, ES = 1.03; min‐25, ES = 0.65). Significant interactions at 25 min (p = 0.033, 0.047) showed that RWU outperformed SWU, especially in younger groups (pre‐PHV, mid‐PHV). RWU was superior to SWU for the reactive strength index at 20 min (p = 0.042) and 25 min (p = 0.047), with females having lower RSI than males at 20 min (p = 0.008, p = 0.015) and 25 min (p = 0.049) in later developmental stages. The flight distance (p = 0.009) and horizontal hip velocity (p = 0.014) revealed significant three‐way interactions, with the male adv. post‐PHV group responding better to RWU. Knee angular velocity was also higher after RWU, with male adv. post‐PHV group showing more pronounced improvements (p = 0.016). These results suggest that though RWU had higher influence in male adults, it is a valuable approach for varying ages athletes.
AbstractThis study aimed (i) to analyze the 1500 m open water swimming performance, (ii) to examine the associations between physiological and biomechanical variables with swimming performance, and (iii) to determine which variables can predict swimming performance in triathletes. Fourteen elite triathletes (23.4±3.8 y) performed a 1500 m test in open water swimming conditions. Swimming performance was assessed using World Aquatics Points Scoring, and data were obtained from the 1500 m open water swimming test. Heart rate, end-exercise oxygen uptake (EE˙VO2) and blood lactate concentrations were measured. The initial 250 m of the 1500 m swimming test presented the highest values of biomechanical variables in males (i. e. swimming speed, stroke rate (SR), length (SL), index (SI)). A decrease in SL was observed in the last 250 m in both sexes. Positive association were found between EE˙VO2 (r=0.513; p=0.030), swimming speed (r=0.873; p<0.001) and SI (r=0.704; p=0.002) with swimming performance. In contrast, time constant of the oxygen uptake (r=−0.500; p=0.034) and buoy-turn times (r=−0.525; p=0.027) were negatively associated with performance. SI was the main predictor (R 2=0.495) of open water swimming performance in triathletes. In conclusion, triathletes and coaches must conduct open water training sessions to maximize SI (i. e. swimming efficiency).
ABSTRACTThis study aimed to compare performance, kinematic, and physiological variables between open water and pool swimming conditions in elite triathletes and to examine the associations between conditions on these variables. Fourteen elite triathletes (10 males and 4 females [23.4 ± 3.8 years]) performed two 1500‐m swimming tests in open water and in a 25‐m pool. Swimming speed, stroke rate (SR), length (SL) and index (SI), heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentrations [La−], and end‐exercise oxygen uptake (EEV̇O2) were assessed in both conditions. Lower SL and SI and higher SR were obtained in open water compared with pool swimming (p < 0.05). Moreover, kinematic variables changed as a function of distance in both conditions (p < 0.05). No differences were found in the main physiological variables (HR, [La−], and EEV̇O2) between conditions. Respiratory exchange ratio presented lower values in open water than in pool conditions (p < 0.05), while time constant was higher in open water (p = 0.032). The fastest triathletes in open water obtained the best performance in the pool (r = 0.958; p < 0.001). All kinematic variables, HR and peak [La−] presented positive associations between conditions (r > 0.6; p < 0.05). Despite physiological invariance, triathletes and coaches should monitor specific open water training to adapt their swimming technique to the competitive environment.
Purpose: To explore the association of the load–velocity (L-V) relationship variables and ability to maintain maximal mechanical performance during the prone bench-pull exercise with sprint swimming performance and in-water forces. Methods: Eleven competitive adult male swimmers (50-m front crawl World Aquatics points: 488 [66], performance level 4) performed 1 experimental session. The L-V relationship variables (L0 [ie, maximal theoretical load at 0 velocity]; v0 [ie, maximal theoretical velocity at 0 load], and Aline [ie, area under the L-V relationship]) and maximal mechanical maintenance capacity were assessed at the beginning of the session. Afterward, sprint swimming performance and in-water force production were tested through a 50-m front-crawl all-out trial and 15-s fully-tethered swimming, respectively. Results: Only v0 presented high positive associations with 50-m time and swimming kinematics (r > .532; P < .046). The L0, v0, and Aline showed very high positive associations with the in-water forces during tethered swimming (r > .523; P < .049). However, the ability to maintain maximal mechanical performance, assessed by the mean velocity decline during the prone bench pull, was only significantly correlated with stroke rate (r = −.647; P = .016) and stroke index (r = .614; P = .022). Conclusions: These findings indicate that maximal neuromuscular capacities, especially v0, have a stronger correlation with swimming performance and in-water force production than the ability to maintain maximal mechanical performance in level 4 swimmers.
ABSTRACT This study aimed 1) to examine variables that may quantify the ability to apply force in the water and 2) to test their relationship with free swimming performance. Sixteen regional-level swimmers participated in this study. Average (Favg) and maximum (Fmax) forces were measured for 30 s arm stroke tethered swimming in a flume at zero and 1.389 m/s water flow speeds. The maximum and average force’s relative changes (ΔFmax and ΔFavg, respectively) were calculated between tethered swimming at zero and 1.389 m/s water flow speeds. Free swimming speeds were obtained from 25, 50, and 100 m front crawl trials, and were correlated with ΔFmax and ΔFavg. A negative correlation was found between ΔFmax and 25, 50 and 100 m speeds (r = -0.84, r = -0.74, r = -0.55; p < 0.05, respectively) and ΔFavg correlated negatively with 25 and 50 m speeds (r = -0.63, r = -0.54; p < 0.05, respectively), but it did not correlate with 100 m swimming speed. The relative change in force could be used to quantify the ability to apply force in the water. This could aid coaches to understand if changes in swimmers’ ability to apply force in the water contribute to improvements in performance.
ABSTRACT In swimming, the underwater phase after the start and turn comprises gliding and dolphin kicking, with the latter also known as underwater undulatory swimming (UUS). Swimming performance is highly dependent on the underwater phase; therefore, understanding the training effects in UUS and underwater gliding can be critical for swimmers and coaches. Further, the development of technique in young swimmers can lead to exponential benefits in an athlete’s career. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a training protocol on UUS and underwater gliding performance and kinematics in young swimmers. Seventeen age group swimmers (boys = 10, girls = 7) performed maximal UUS and underwater gliding efforts before and after a seven-week training protocol. Time to reach 10 m; intra-cyclic mean, peak, and minimum velocities; and gliding performance improved significantly after the training protocol. The UUS performance improvement was mostly produced by an improvement of the upbeat execution, together with a likely reduction of swimmers’ hydrodynamic drag. Despite the changes in UUS and gliding, performance was also likely influenced by growth. The findings from this study highlight kinematic variables that can be used to understand and quantify changes in UUS and gliding performance.
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a five-week training program on undulatory underwater swimming (UUS) in swimmers and to compare the specific effects prompted by two different training protocols on UUS performance and kinematics. Swimmers (n = 14) were divided into in-water only (WO) (18.61 ± 2.62 years, FINA points: 507 ± 60) and water + dry-land training groups (with conical pulleys) (WD) (18.38 ± 2.67 years, FINA points: 508 ± 83). Three countermovement jumps (CMJ) and three maximal UUS trials were performed before and after a five-week training period. The training program comprised 14 × 30-min sessions. The WO group repeated the same 15-min block twice, while the WD group performed one block of 15 min in the water and the other block on land performing lower limb exercises with conical pulleys. Seven body landmarks were auto-digitalized during UUS by a pre-trained neural network and 21 kinematic variables were calculated. The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Significant time × group interaction in favour of the WD group was observed for mean vertical toe velocity (p = 0.035, = 0.32). The WD group experienced enhancements in mean and maximum underwater velocity, kick frequency, maximum shoulder angular velocity, as well as mean and maximum vertical toe velocity (p < 0.05). The WO group exhibited an enhancement in CMJ height (p < 0.05). In conclusion, UUS performance was improved in adolescent swimmers after five weeks of specific training, only when combining water and conical pulley exercises. Coaches should include dry-land specific lower limb exercises in addition to in-water training to improve UUS performance.
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
ABSTRACT Competitive progressions are necessary to ensure that peak performance occurs when medals are decided. This study aimed to: i) study the coefficient of variation (CV) and performance changes (%Δ) among swimmers who participated in different rounds (i.e., heats, semi-finals and finals); ii) study the CV changes as a function of FINA-points. A total of 1447 performances were analysed in the 100 and 200 m-races during the Budapest 2021 European-Championships. Linear mixed-effects models were applied for total and split-times to obtain intra-athlete CV and %Δ. The FINA-points were studied with two-way ANOVA and Pearson’s correlation assessed the relations with CV. The CV in 100 m-races was: 0.48 ± 0.21% for males and 0.50 ± 0.20% for females (Δ = −0.66%); in 200 m-races: 0.63 ± 0.36% and 0.60 ± 0.34% (Δ = −0.82%). There were differences in FINA-points between strokes and distances (p < 0.02) associated with higher CV for the 200 m-races (r = 0.37; p = 0.003), indicating changes in performance over the rounds. Swimmers’ finalists performed easier during the heats by going slower in the first 50 m-lap; however, some of them would have little chance of qualifying during major championships because some events were below FINA-points world-standards.
Contributions by lab members
Scientific output by Aquatics Lab members during the project period (Sep 2023 – Aug 2027), not specifically linked to Swim3 but part of the group's ongoing activity. Cited in APA 7 format.
OBJECTIVES This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on physiological adaptations and performance in competitive swimmers.
METHODS Following PRISMA guidelines, five databases were searched from inception to July 2025. Eligible studies included randomized controlled trials and intervention studies examining HIIT in competitive swimmers. Methodological quality was assessed using PEDro scale. Random-effects meta-analyses calculated standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals.
RESULTS Eleven intervention studies comprising 237 competitive swimmers (mean age 15.4 ± 2.5 years) were included. HIIT significantly improved VO2max (SMD = 0.86, 95% CI: 0.52-1.20, p < 0.001, I2 = 0%) and swimming performance (SMD = 0.52, 95% CI: 0.36-0.68, p < 0.001). Sprint events showed greatest improvements (1.8%). Polarized training produced superior VO2max gains (8.8%) compared to traditional sprint interval training (6.6%) and threshold training (4.7%). Interventions ≥8 weeks yielded larger effects (SMD = 0.78) than shorter protocols (<8 weeks) (SMD = 0.42). Ultra-short race-pace training maintained 98.5% of target velocity with 24% lower lactate and 14% lower perceived exertion compared to traditional methods.
CONCLUSIONS HIIT produces consistent improvements in aerobic capacity and swimming performance in competitive swimmers. For sprint events (50-100 m), ultra-short race-pace training is recommended; for middle-distance (200-400 m), polarized training; for distance events (≥800 m), preliminary evidence suggests that pyramidal approaches may be beneficial, though further research is needed. Minimum 8-week interventions are required for meaningful adaptations.
The aim of this study was to analyse lap performance stability, stroke kinematic variables in the clean swimming phase and turn performance in the finals of the four 200 m short course (SCM) events (freestyle, backstroke, breaststroke, and butterfly). The sample included thirty-two elite female swimmers who competed in the 200 m finals at the 2019 LEN European Short Course Championships in Glasgow. Lap times, stroke kinematics, and turns were analysed using two approaches: (i) official lap time comparison (50 m), and; (ii) comparison of consecutive segments (25 m). Based on the official lap time comparison, performance significantly decreased over time (p < 0.001) with strong effect sizes in all strokes (η 2 between 0.89 and 0.96). Pairwise comparisons between consecutive 25 m segments were not significant. Turn time increased in all four strokes with strong effect sizes (p < 0.001; η 2 between 0.71 and 0.84). The start contributed ∼6% and turns ∼52% of the total race time. These findings highlight that traditional pacing analysis based on official splits may lead to misleading interpretations of performance in SCM events. Analysing 25 m segments provides a more accurate representation of race dynamics and contributes to a clearer understanding of pacing stability in short-course swimming.
The inclusion of the 50 m butterfly, backstroke, and breaststroke events in the 2028 Olympic Games is likely to influence training methodologies and performance trajectories, considering that in competitive swimming, coaches already implement different training approaches for sprinter swimmers. This study examines whether elite sprint specialists, particularly those specializing in 50 m events, should prioritize high-intensity interval training (HIIT) over the traditionally dominant overdistance training models. The discussion aims to inform coaches and researchers about evolving approaches to sprint training and guide future research on intensity distribution in sprint swimming. There is a clear distinction in energy system demands between sprint events: the 50 m event has an aerobic contribution of approximately 20%, while in the 100 m event, the aerobic contribution can rise to around 40-50%. Despite the high anaerobic demands of the 50 m, many coaches continue to implement a Polarized Training Intensity Distribution (TID), characterized by a significant proportion of aerobic training. Based on recent developments in sprint swimming and some aspects of current literature support for the potential benefits of a greater emphasis on HIIT, assisted sprints, and overspeed training, along with earlier and more targeted specialization for sprinters, and an increased emphasis on dryland strength and conditioning. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to examine the efficacy of different TID approaches, particularly for elite athletes specializing exclusively in the 50 m distance.
Abstract not publicly available · consult publisher.
Objectives: To investigate performance development and variety in swimming strokes of female swimmers from early junior to elite age. Methods: A total of 194,788 race times of female 200 m swimmers representing 77 nations were ranked at peak performance age and clustered into world-class finalists (>850 swimming points), international-class (750–850), national-class (650–750) and regional-class swimmers (550–650). Annual best times for each swimming stroke were retrospectively extracted throughout adolescence from 13 years of age. Longitudinal performance development and differences between the swimmers’ main and their secondary swimming strokes were analyzed using linear mixed model. Results: World-class freestyle swimmers show significantly (p ≤ 0.042) higher swimming points across all age categories compared to international-, national- and regional-class swimmers. Linear mixed model analysis indicates a significant performance progression for international- and national-class freestyle swimmers up to the 19–20-year-old category (p ≤ 0.038), but an earlier plateau was observed for regional-class swimmers (p = 0.714). Comparing main and secondary swimming strokes, freestyle swimmers show the highest degree of specialization. For breaststroke and individual medleys, specialization increases with increasing performance level and the closer an athlete is to elite age. World-class butterfly and backstroke finalists show the lowest specializations in terms of the smallest number of significant differences compared to performances in their secondary swimming strokes. Conclusions: Higher ranked swimmers show a greater degree of specialization. As different specialization patterns are evident for the various swimming strokes, decision makers and talent specialists should align development guidelines accordingly and base them on the most advantageous combinations of swimming strokes.
Swimming, cycling, and track and field are among the most watched sports in Olympic 20Games. Despite the complex interaction of aerobic and anaerobic energy supply, sprint 21 performances in these three sports heavily rely on rapid energy production from the 22 anaerobic metabolism. Although event durations and intensities may be similar between 23 sports, training regimens of swimmers, cyclists and track and field athletes differ 24 considerably and provide the opportunity for cross-disciplinary learning. Therefore, this 25 research topic aimed to gather insights on the determinants of sprint performances across 26 these sports to develop faster athletes.
Objective: As performance progression provides an essential indicator for talent selection and development, this study aimed to compare annual swimming performance progression between different competitive levels and to establish benchmarks for long-term athlete development. Methods: Annual best times of swimmers who competed up to the age of 21 years and achieved over 450 World Aquatics points were extracted from the database of European Aquatics. A total of 13,310 male and 7798 female pool swimmers of all race distances were grouped into three performance levels. Results: The results showed a continuous decline in annual performance progression throughout the years across all race distances (all p < 0.001) and in both sexes. There were differences between performance level across the age groups for all race distances in male swimmers, but only for the 100–400 m races in females (p < 0.05). Absolute performance showed significant main effects for level and age over all race distances for both sexes (all p < 0.001). Conclusions: Annual performance progression of swimmers consistently decreases across the competitive lifetime in both sexes, regardless of race distance and performance level. The event-specific benchmarks should be used as a framework to set realistic goals for both sexes and swimmers of different competitive levels, as well as to guide swimmers throughout their careers.
Abstract not publicly available · consult publisher.
The present study aimed to compare swimmers' in-water force according to swimming performance tiers within the same age group and compare the dominant and non-dominant upper limbs within the same tier throughout continuous and discrete analyses. Fifty-two young swimmers (girls and boys: 12.13 ± 0.71 years) were split up into two tiers based on the mean speed: Tier-1 (n = 28), low-tier; and Tier-2 (n = 24), top-tier. In-water forces of upper limbs were assessed with a differential pressure system composed of two hand sensors during 25 m front crawl swimming. Force-time curves of the underwater paths and the mean peak force (FPEAK, N) were considered for further analysis using discrete and continuous analyses (Statistical Parametric Mapping, SPM). Results showed that top-tier swimmers applied greater in-water forces in front crawl (∼61 N) when compared to the low-tier (∼51 N). With SPM, differences were found between 64-74 % and ∼60-90 % of the underwater path of the stroke cycle for the dominant and non-dominant upper limb, respectively. Both upper limbs appear to apply a similar in-water force (p > 0.05), regardless of the performance tier. Therefore, swimmers within the same age group differ in the upper limbs applied in-water force during the front crawl. The SPM analysis seems to provide more insights into the applied force during the hand path,as it allows identifying differences according to the underwater phases.
PurposeThis study examined tactical positioning and pacing in short-distance (100 m), middle-distance (200 m, 400 m) and long-distance (800 m, 1,500 m) freestyle events, focusing on the influence of race distance, competition round (HEAT vs. FINAL), and sex.MethodsRace data from multiple World Championships (2013–2023) were analyzed. Spearman's rank correlations (ρ) were calculated to examine rank stability across race distances, competition rounds, and sex. Additionally, lane distributions of Top3 finishers were analyzed to assess the impact of lane position on race outcomes.ResultsRank correlations increased progressively from the first to the final lap across all race distances (p < 0.05). Long-distance events exhibited earlier rank stabilization, with correlations reaching ρ ≥ 0.90 by 50% race completion, whereas middle-distance events showed greater positional variability throughout. Rank correlations were lower in FINALS than in HEATS (p < 0.05), indicating greater positional shifts in high-stakes races. No significant sex-based differences were observed (p > 0.05). Central lanes (4 and 5) were associated with the highest Top3 finish rates, while outer lanes (0, 1, 8, and 9) had the lowest, particularly in long-distance events.ConclusionFinals foster more dynamic race strategies, with increased positional changes. Rank stability was achieved at a relatively earlier proportion of the race in long-distance events compared to middle-distance events. By the final lap, rank stability converged across all distances, suggesting that race order was largely set before the last lap, emphasizing early tactical positioning over late-race surges. These findings offer insights into optimizing race tactics and pacing in elite swimming.
ObjectivesTo analyse stroke rate (SR) and stroke length (SL) combinations among elite swimmers to better understand stroke strategies across all race distances of freestyle events.DesignWe analysed SR and SL data from 324 male and female swimmers competing in all individual freestyle events (50 m to 1,500 m) at the 2019 European Short-Course Championships using video-based kinematic analysis.MethodsTwo-dimensional kernel density estimation (2D KDE) was applied to visualise SR–SL combinations. Spearman correlations quantified relationships between stroke parameters and speed by sex and race distance.ResultsIn the 50 m sprint, SL showed the strongest positive correlation with speed (men: ρ = 0.57; women: ρ = 0.50), while SR correlations were trivial. As race distance increased, SR correlations with speed strengthened, reaching moderate levels in long-distance events (men's 1,500 m: ρ = 0.37; women's 800 m: ρ = 0.45), whereas SL correlations weakened. The 2D KDE heatmaps revealed an inverse SR–SL relationship, with medallists often employing stroke strategies distinct from finalists and the broader field. Gold medallists in sprint events favoured above-average SR without compromising SL, while in middle- and long-distance races, a shift toward higher SR and reduced SL was observed, particularly among women.ConclusionsThese findings highlight the complexity and individuality of stroke mechanics at elite levels and suggest that superior conditioning and technique enable medallists to sustain elevated SR without compromising SL. The application of 2D KDE provides a novel, intuitive method to capture nuanced biomechanical strategies, offering valuable insights for coaching and performance optimisation.
BACKGROUND: Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) has demonstrated efficacy in acutely improving athletic performance. However, its distinction from general warm-up (GW) effects remains ambiguous, and experimental designs adopted in most PAPE studies exhibit important limitations. OBJECTIVES: The aims of this work are to (i) examine the effects of research methodology on PAPE outcomes, (ii) explore PAPE outcomes in relation to comparison methods, performance measures, GW comprehensiveness, recovery duration, participants' characteristics, conditioning activity (CA) parameters, and (iii) make recommendations for future PAPE experimental designs on the basis of the results of the meta-analysis. METHODS: Four databases were searched for peer-reviewed English-language literature. Risk of bias was assessed using a modified Cochrane Collaboration's tool and PEDro scale. PAPE groups were compared with control groups, pre-conditioning activity (pre-CA) performances were compared with post-conditioning activity (post-CA) performances throughout a verification test in PAPE groups, and control groups were compared before and after the "rest" period using a three-level meta-analysis. Further analyses, including subgroup analysis and both linear and nonlinear meta-regression methods, were used to explore the effect of different moderating factors on PAPE magnitude. A subgroup analysis of GW comprehensiveness was conducted using four classification methods. One method classified GW as non-comprehensive (stretching or jogging only), partially comprehensive (stretching, jogging, and low-intensity self-weighted dynamic exercises), and comprehensive (adding maximal or near-maximal intensity CAs to a partially comprehensive GW). The other three classifications were adjusted according to the type and number of GW exercises. Certainty of evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach. RESULTS: The final analysis included 62 PAPE studies (1039 participants, male: n = 857, female: n = 182) with a high risk of bias and low certainty of pooled evidence. A trivial PAPE effect was observed from pre- to post-CA (effect size [ES] = 0.12, 95% CI [0.06 to 0.19], prediction intervals [PI] = - 0.29 to 0.54); a small PAPE effect was observed when compared with a control group (ES = 0.30, 95% CI [0.20 to 0.40], PI [- 0.38 to 0.97]). The slightly greater effect against control resulted from a small decrease in performance in control groups (ES = - 0.08, 95% CI [- 0.13 to - 0.03], PI [- 0.30 to 0.14]), but there was no relationship with between PAPE recovery time (beta = - 0.005, p = 0.149). Subgroup analyses showed that PAPE magnitude was greater for non-comprehensive GWs (ES = 0.16) than comprehensive (ES = 0.01) and partially comprehensive GWs (ES = 0.11). In contrast, the control group showed a decline in performance after comprehensive GW (ES = - 0.20). An inverted U-shaped PAPE was noted as a function of recovery time. In some cases, PAPE appeared to manifest at < 1 min post CA. Additionally, participants with longer training experience (ES = 0.36) and higher training levels (ES = 0.38) had larger PAPE magnitudes. PAPE effect was higher in females (ES = 0.51) than males (ES = 0.32) and mixed groups (ES = 0.16) but did not reach a significant difference (p > 0.05). Plyometric exercise (ES = 0.42) induced greater PAPE amplitude than traditional resistance exercise (ES = 0.23), maximal isometric voluntary contraction (ES = 0.31) and other CA types (ES = 0.24). CONCLUSIONS: Although the overall pooled results for both PAPE pre- versus post-CA and PAPE versus control group comparisons showed significant improvement, the wider and past-zero prediction intervals indicate that future studies are still likely to produce negative results. The comprehensiveness of the GW, the time between GW and the pre-CA test, participant sex, training level, training experience, type of CA, number of CA sets, and recovery time after CA all influence the PAPE magnitude. The PAPE magnitude was trivial after comprehensive GW, but it was greater in studies with a control group (i.e., no CA) because performance decreased over the control period, inflating the PAPE effect. Finally, two theoretical models of PAPE experimental design and suggestions for methodological issues are subsequently presented. Future studies can build on this to further explore the effects of PAPE. PROTOCOL REGISTRATION: The original protocol was prospectively registered (osf.io/v7sbt) with the Open Science Framework.
ABSTRACT Swimming analysts aid coaches and athletes in the decision-making by providing evidence-based recommendations. The aim of this narrative review was to report the best practices of swimming analysts that have been supporting high-performance athletes. It also aims to share how swimming analysts can translate applied research into practice. The role of the swimming analyst, as part of a holistic team supporting high-performance athletes, has been expanding and is needed to be distinguished from the job scope of a swimming researcher. As testing can be time-consuming, analysts must decide what to test and when to conduct the evaluation sessions. Swimming analysts engage in the modelling and forecast of the performance, that in short- and mid-term can help set races target-times, and in the long-term provide insights on talent and career development. Races can be analysed by manual, semi-automatic or fully automatic video analysis with single or multi-cameras set-ups. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of the swim strokes, start, turns, and finish are also part of the analyst job scope and associated with race performance goals. Land-based training is another task that can be assigned to analysts and aims to enhance the performance, prevent musculoskeletal injuries and monitor its risk factors.